REFERENCES
2. Crea F, Camici PG, Bairey Merz CN. Coronary microvascular dysfunction: an update. Eur Heart J 2014;35:1101-11.
3. Murthy VL, Naya M, Taqueti VR, et al. Effects of sex on coronary microvascular dysfunction and cardiac outcomes. Circulation 2014;129:2518-27.
4. Gulati M, Cooper-DeHoff RM, McClure C, et al. Adverse cardiovascular outcomes in women with nonobstructive coronary artery disease: a report from the Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation Study and the St James Women Take Heart Project. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:843-50.
5. Huang FY, Huang BT, Lv WY, et al. The prognosis of patients with nonobstructive coronary artery disease versus normal arteries determined by invasive coronary angiography or computed tomography coronary angiography: a systematic review. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016;95:e3117.
6. Johnson BD, Shaw LJ, Buchthal SD, et al. National Institutes of Health-National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Prognosis in women with myocardial ischemia in the absence of obstructive coronary disease: results from the National Institutes of Health-National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-Sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE). Circulation 2004;109:2993-9.
7. Lin FY, Shaw LJ, Dunning AM, et al. Mortality risk in symptomatic patients with nonobstructive coronary artery disease: a prospective 2-center study of 2,583 patients undergoing 64-detector row coronary computed tomographic angiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;58:510-9.
8. Pepine CJ, Anderson RD, Sharaf BL, et al. Coronary microvascular reactivity to adenosine predicts adverse outcome in women evaluated for suspected ischemia results from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute WISE (Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010;55:2825-32.
9. Mohandas R, Segal MS, Huo T, et al. Renal function and coronary microvascular dysfunction in women with symptoms/signs of ischemia. PLoS One 2015;10:e0125374.
10. Kunadian V, Chieffo A, Camici PG, et al. An EAPCI expert consensus document on ischaemia with non-obstructive coronary arteries in Collaboration with European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Coronary Pathophysiology & Microcirculation Endorsed by Coronary Vasomotor Disorders International Study Group. Eur Heart J 2020;41:3504-20.
11. Camici PG, Olivotto I, Rimoldi OE. The coronary circulation and blood flow in left ventricular hypertrophy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2012;52:857-64.
12. Ong P, Athanasiadis A, Borgulya G, Mahrholdt H, Kaski JC, Sechtem U. High prevalence of a pathological response to acetylcholine testing in patients with stable angina pectoris and unobstructed coronary arteries. The ACOVA Study (Abnormal COronary VAsomotion in patients with stable angina and unobstructed coronary arteries). J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;59:655-62.
13. Reis SE, Holubkov R, Conrad Smith AJ, et al. WISE Investigators. Coronary microvascular dysfunction is highly prevalent in women with chest pain in the absence of coronary artery disease: results from the NHLBI WISE study. Am Heart J 2001;141:735-41.
14. Wessel TR, Arant CB, McGorray SP, et al. NHLBI Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE). Coronary microvascular reactivity is only partially predicted by atherosclerosis risk factors or coronary artery disease in women evaluated for suspected ischemia: results from the NHLBI Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE). Clin Cardiol 2007;30:69-74.
15. Patel MR, Peterson ED, Dai D, et al. Low diagnostic yield of elective coronary angiography. N Engl J Med 2010;362:886-95.
16. Sara JD, Widmer RJ, Matsuzawa Y, Lennon RJ, Lerman LO, Lerman A. Prevalence of coronary microvascular dysfunction among patients with chest pain and nonobstructive coronary artery disease. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2015;8:1445-53.
17. Lee BK, Lim HS, Fearon WF, et al. Invasive evaluation of patients with angina in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease. Circulation 2015;131:1054-60.
18. Ford TJ, Stanley B, Good R, et al. Stratified medical therapy using invasive coronary function testing in angina: The CorMicA Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018;72:2841-55.
19. Ong P, Safdar B, Seitz A, Hubert A, Beltrame JF, Prescott E. Diagnosis of coronary microvascular dysfunction in the clinic. Cardiovasc Res 2020;116:841-55.
20. Ong P, Camici PG, Beltrame JF, et al. Coronary Vasomotion Disorders International Study Group (COVADIS). International standardization of diagnostic criteria for microvascular angina. Int J Cardiol 2018;250:16-20.
21. Hoffman JI. Maximal coronary flow and the concept of coronary vascular reserve. Circulation 1984;70:153-9.
22. Gould K, Lipscomb K, Hamilton GW. Physiologic basis for assessing critical coronary stenosis. Am J Cardiol 1974;33:87-94.
23. Goodwill AG, Dick GM, Kiel AM, Tune JD. . Regulation of coronary blood flow. In: Terjung R, editor. Comprehensive physiology. Wiley; 2011. p. 321-82.
24. Bruyne B, Bartunek J, Sys SU, Pijls NH, Heyndrickx GR, Wijns W. Simultaneous coronary pressure and flow velocity measurements in humans. Feasibility, reproducibility, and hemodynamic dependence of coronary flow velocity reserve, hyperemic flow versus pressure slope index, and fractional flow reserve. Circulation 1996;94:1842-9.
25. Adjedj J, Toth GG, Johnson NP, et al. Intracoronary adenosine: dose-response relationship with hyperemia. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2015;8:1422-30.
26. Granger DN, Rodrigues SF, Yildirim A, Senchenkova EY. Microvascular responses to cardiovascular risk factors. Microcirculation 2010;17:192-205.
27. Chahine RA, Feldman RL, Giles TD, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of amlodipine in vasospastic angina. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;21:1365-70.
28. Rosenthal SJ, Ginsburg R, Lamb IH, Baim DS, Schroeder JS. Efficacy of diltiazem for control of symptoms of coronary arterial spasm. Am J Cardiol 1980;46:1027-32.
29. Lanza GA, Colonna G, Pasceri V, Maseri A. Atenolol versus amlodipine versus isosorbide-5-mononitrate on anginal symptoms in syndrome X. Am J Cardiol 1999;84:854-6.
30. Masumoto A, Mohri M, Takeshita A. Three-year follow-up of the Japanese patients with microvascular angina attributable to coronary microvascular spasm. Int J Cardiol 2001;81:151-6.
31. Sorop O, Bakker EN, Pistea A, Spaan JA, VanBavel E. Calcium channel blockade prevents pressure-dependent inward remodeling in isolated subendocardial resistance vessels. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006;291:H1236-45.
32. Yao K, Nagashima K, Miki H. Pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, and clinical properties of benidipine hydrochloride, a novel, long-acting calcium channel blocker. J Pharmacol Sci 2006;100:243-61.
33. Abe M, Okada K, Maruyama N, et al. Benidipine reduces albuminuria and plasma aldosterone in mild-to-moderate stage chronic kidney disease with albuminuria. Hypertens Res 2011;34:268-73.
34. Tani S, Takahashi A, Nagao K, Hirayama A. Effects of the T/L-type calcium channel blocker benidipine on albuminuria and plasma aldosterone concentration. A pilot study involving switching from L-type calcium channel blockers to benidipine. Int Heart J 2014;55:519-25.
35. Unger T, Paulis L, Sica DA. Therapeutic perspectives in hypertension: novel means for renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system modulation and emerging device-based approaches. Eur Heart J 2011;32:2739-47.
36. Kosaka H, Hirayama K, Yoda N, et al. The L-, N-, and T-type triple calcium channel blocker benidipine acts as an antagonist of mineralocorticoid receptor, a member of nuclear receptor family. Eur J Pharmacol 2010;635:49-55.
37. Fuji Y, Suzuki H, Katsumata H, Nakajima S, Saruta T. Hormonal and renal responses to oral once-daily calcium entry blocker in normotensive and hypertensive persons. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1988;11:438-43.
38. Nishigaki K, Inoue Y, Yamanouchi Y, et al. Prognostic effects of calcium channel blockers in patients with vasospastic angina--a meta-analysis. Circ J 2010;74:1943-50.
39. Kim SE, Jo SH, Han SH, et al. Comparison of calcium-channel blockers for long-term clinical outcomes in patients with vasospastic angina. Korean J Intern Med 2021;36:124-34.
40. Miwa Y, Masai H, Shimizu M. Differential effects of calcium-channel blockers on vascular endothelial function in patients with coronary spastic angina. Circ J 2009;73:713-7.
41. Day L, Sowton E. Clinical features and follow-up of patients with angina and normal coronary arteries. Lancet 1976;308:334-7.
42. Isner JM, Fisher GP, Del Negro AA, Borer JS. Right ventricular infarction with hemodynamic decompensation due to transient loss of active atrial augmentation: successful treatment with atrial pacing. Am Heart J 1981;102:792-4.
43. Matsumoto T, Takahashi M, Omura T, et al. Heterogeneity in the vasorelaxing effect of nicorandil on dog epicardial coronary arteries: comparison with other NO donors. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1997;29:772-9.
44. Kim CH, Park TK, Cho SW, et al. Impact of different nitrate therapies on long-term clinical outcomes of patients with vasospastic angina: a propensity score-matched analysis. Int J Cardiol 2018;252:1-5.
45. Kukovetz WR, Holzmann S, Braida C, Pöch G. Dual mechanism of the relaxing effect of nicorandil by stimulation of cyclic GMP formation and by hyperpolarization. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1991;17:627-33.
46. Kukovetz WR, Holzmann S, Pöch G. Molecular mechanism of action of nicorandil. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992;20:S1-7.
47. Tarkin JM, Kaski JC. Vasodilator therapy: nitrates and nicorandil. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2016;30:367-78.
48. Brodmann M, Lischnig U, Lueger A, Stark G, Pilger E. The effect of the K+ agonist nicorandil on peripheral vascular resistance. Int J Cardiol 2006;111:49-52.
49. Kool MJ, Spek JJ, Struyker Boudier HA, et al. Acute and subacute effects of nicorandil and isosorbide dinitrate on vessel wall properties of large arteries and hemodynamics in healthy volunteers. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1995;9:331-7.
50. Ishibashi Y, Takahashi N, Tokumaru A, et al. Effects of long-term nicorandil administration on endothelial function, inflammation, and oxidative stress in patients without coronary artery disease. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2008;51:311-6.
51. Lindemann H, Petrovic I, Hill S, et al. Biopsy-confirmed endothelial cell activation in patients with coronary microvascular dysfunction. Coron Artery Dis 2018;29:216-22.
52. Frishman WH. β-Adrenergic blockade in cardiovascular disease. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 2013;18:310-9.
53. Duncker DJ, Koller A, Merkus D, Canty JM Jr. Regulation of coronary blood flow in health and ischemic heart disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2015;57:409-22.
54. Kalinowski L, Dobrucki LW, Szczepanska-Konkel M, et al. Third-generation beta-blockers stimulate nitric oxide release from endothelial cells through ATP efflux: a novel mechanism for antihypertensive action. Circulation 2003;107:2747-52.
55. Mason RP, Jacob RF, Corbalan JJ, Szczesny D, Matysiak K, Malinski T. The favorable kinetics and balance of nebivolol-stimulated nitric oxide and peroxynitrite release in human endothelial cells. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2013;14:48.
56. Shahin Y, Khan JA, Samuel N, Chetter I. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors effect on endothelial dysfunction: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Atherosclerosis 2011;216:7-16.
57. Büchner N, Banas B, Krämer BK. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk of vascular events. N Engl J Med 2008;359:426.
58. Dagenais GR, Yusuf S, Bourassa MG, et al. HOPE Investigators. Effects of ramipril on coronary events in high-risk persons: results of the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study. Circulation 2001;104:522-6.
59. Pauly DF, Johnson BD, Anderson RD, et al. In women with symptoms of cardiac ischemia, nonobstructive coronary arteries, and microvascular dysfunction, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition is associated with improved microvascular function: A double-blind randomized study from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE). Am Heart J 2011;162:678-84.
60. Suhrs HE, Michelsen MM, Prescott E. Treatment strategies in coronary microvascular dysfunction: a systematic review of interventional studies. Microcirculation 2019;26:e12430.
61. Lefer A. Vascular effects of HMG CoA-reductase inhibitors (statins) unrelated to cholesterol lowering: new concepts for cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Res 2001;49:281-7.
62. Rosenson RS. Statin therapy: new therapy for cardiac microvascular dysfunction. Eur Heart J 2003;24:1993-4.
63. Zhang X, Li Q, Zhao J, et al. Effects of combination of statin and calcium channel blocker in patients with cardiac syndrome X. Coron Artery Dis 2014;25:40-4.
64. Yokoyama I, Inoue Y, Moritan T, Ohtomo K, Nagai R. Impaired myocardial vasodilatation during hyperaemic stress is improved by simvastatin but not by pravastatin in patients with hypercholesterolaemia. Eur Heart J 2004;25:671-9.
65. Jia Q, Shi S, Yuan G, et al. The effect of nicorandil in patients with cardiac syndrome X: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020;99:e22167.
66. Bassenge E, Pohl U. Effect of molsidomine on cardiac preload, coronary artery diameter, and coronary resistance. Am Heart J 1985;109:627-30.
67. Tagliamonte E, Rigo F, Cirillo T, et al. Effects of ranolazine on noninvasive coronary flow reserve in patients with myocardial ischemia but without obstructive coronary artery disease. Echocardiography 2015;32:516-21.
68. D'Elia E, Fiocca L, Ferrero P, et al. Ranolazine in heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction and microvascular dysfunction: case report and literature review. J Clin Pharmacol 2013;53:665-9.
69. Cattaneo M, Porretta AP, Gallino A. Ranolazine: Drug overview and possible role in primary microvascular angina management. Int J Cardiol 2015;181:376-81.
70. Sharp RP, Patatanian E, Sirajuddin R. Use of ranolazine for the treatment of coronary microvascular dysfunction. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 2021; doi: 10.1007/s40256-020-00462-6.
71. DiFrancesco D. Characterization of single pacemaker channels in cardiac sino-atrial node cells. Nature 1986;324:470-3.
72. DiFrancesco D. The contribution of the 'pacemaker' current (if) to generation of spontaneous activity in rabbit sino-atrial node myocytes. J Physiol 1991;434:23-40.
73. Borer JS, Fox K, Jaillon P, Lerebours G. Ivabradine Investigators Group. Antianginal and antiischemic effects of ivabradine, an I(f) inhibitor, in stable angina: a randomized, double-blind, multicentered, placebo-controlled trial. Circulation 2003;107:817-23.
74. Villano A, Di Franco A, Nerla R, et al. Effects of ivabradine and ranolazine in patients with microvascular angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 2013;112:8-13.
75. Skalidis EI, Hamilos MI, Chlouverakis G, Zacharis EA, Vardas PE. Ivabradine improves coronary flow reserve in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis 2011;215:160-5.
76. Camici PG, Gloekler S, Levy BI, et al. Ivabradine in chronic stable angina: effects by and beyond heart rate reduction. Int J Cardiol 2016;215:1-6.
77. Maseri A, Crea F, Kaski JC, Crake T. Mechanisms of angina pectoris in syndrome X. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991;17:499-506.
78. Lanza GA, Crea F. Primary coronary microvascular dysfunction: clinical presentation, pathophysiology, and management. Circulation 2010;121:2317-25.
79. Emdin M, Picano E, Lattanzi F, l'Abbate A. Improved exercise capacity with acute aminophylline administration in patients with syndrome X. J Am Coll Cardiol 1989;14:1450-3.
80. Ferrari R, Camici PG, Crea F, et al. Expert consensus document: a 'diamond' approach to personalized treatment of angina. Nat Rev Cardiol 2018;15:120-32.
81. Yasaei R, Peterson E, Saadabadi A. . StatPearls: Chronic Pain Syndrome. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021.
82. Sanderson JE, Brooksby P, Waterhouse D, Palmer RB, Neubauer K. Epidural spinal electrical stimulation for severe angina: a study of its effects on symptoms, exercise tolerance and degree of ischaemia. Eur Heart J 1992;13:628-33.
83. Lanza GA, Sestito A, Sgueglia GA, et al. Effect of spinal cord stimulation on spontaneous and stress-induced angina and 'ischemia-like' ST-segment depression in patients with cardiac syndrome X. Eur Heart J 2005;26:983-9.
84. Mannheimer C, Eliasson T, Augustinsson LE, et al. Electrical stimulation versus coronary artery bypass surgery in severe angina pectoris: the ESBY study. Circulation 1998;97:1157-63.
85. Sgueglia GA, Sestito A, Spinelli A, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with cardiac syndrome X treated by spinal cord stimulation. Heart 2007;93:591-7.
86. Arora RR, Chou TM, Jain D, et al. Effects of enhanced external counterpulsation on Health-Related Quality of Life continue 12 months after treatment: a substudy of the Multicenter Study of Enhanced External Counterpulsation. J Investig Med 2002;50:25-32.
87. Arora RR, Chou TM, Jain D, et al. The multicenter study of enhanced external counterpulsation (MUST-EECP): effect of EECP on exercise-induced myocardial ischemia and anginal episodes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33:1833-40.
88. Maccarthy PA, Pegge NC, Prendergast BD, Shah AM, Groves PH. The physiological role of endogenous endothelin in the regulation of human coronary vasomotor tone. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;37:137-43.
89. Mather KJ, Lteif AA, Veeneman E, et al. Role of endogenous ET-1 in the regulation of myocardial blood flow in lean and obese humans. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2010;18:63-70.
90. Kaski JC, Elliott PM, Salomone O, et al. Concentration of circulating plasma endothelin in patients with angina and normal coronary angiograms. Br Heart J 1995;74:620-4.
91. Cox ID, Bøtker HE, Bagger JP, Sonne HS, Kristensen BØ, Kaski JC. Elevated endothelin concentrations are associated with reduced coronary vasomotor responses in patients with chest pain and normal coronary arteriograms. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;34:455-60.
92. Johnson NP, Gould KL. Physiology of endothelin in producing myocardial perfusion heterogeneity: a mechanistic study using darusentan and positron emission tomography. J Nucl Cardiol 2013;20:835-44.
93. Reriani M, Raichlin E, Prasad A, et al. Long-term administration of endothelin receptor antagonist improves coronary endothelial function in patients with early atherosclerosis. Circulation 2010;122:958-66.
94. Ford TJ, Rocchiccioli P, Good R, et al. Systemic microvascular dysfunction in microvascular and vasospastic angina. Eur Heart J 2018;39:4086-97.
95. Greene SJ, Gheorghiade M, Borlaug BA, et al. The cGMP signaling pathway as a therapeutic target in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. J Am Heart Assoc 2013;2:e000536.
96. Follmann M, Ackerstaff J, Redlich G, et al. Discovery of the soluble guanylate cyclase stimulator vericiguat (BAY 1021189) for the treatment of chronic heart failure. J Med Chem 2017;60:5146-61.
97. Martínez Pereyra V, Seitz A, Hubert A, et al. Repurposing riociguat for treatment of refractory angina resulting from coronary spasm. JACC: Case Reports 2021;3:392-6.
