REFERENCES
1. Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American heart association/American stroke association. Stroke 2019;50:e344-418.
2. National Stroke Foundation (Australia). Clinical guidelines for stroke management 2010. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/32407966/Clinical_Guidelines_for_Stroke_Management_2010_National_Stroke_Foundation [Last accessed on 4 Jun 2021].
3. Rai AT, Seldon AE, Boo S, et al. A population-based incidence of acute large vessel occlusions and thrombectomy eligible patients indicates significant potential for growth of endovascular stroke therapy in the USA. J Neurointerv Surg 2017;9:722-6.
4. Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380:1795-803.
5. Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al. MRI-guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379:611-22.
6. Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378:11-21.
7. Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378:708-18.
8. Bamford J, Sandercock P, Dennis M, Burn J, Warlow C. Classification and natural history of clinically identifiable subtypes of cerebral infarction. Lancet 1991;337:1521-6.
9. Schulz UG, Fischer U. Posterior circulation cerebrovascular syndromes: diagnosis and management. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2017;88:45-53.
10. Tarnutzer AA, Lee SH, Robinson KA, Wang Z, Edlow JA, Newman-Toker DE. ED misdiagnosis of cerebrovascular events in the era of modern neuroimaging: a meta-analysis. Neurology 2017;88:1468-77.
11. Arch AE, Weisman DC, Coca S, Nystrom KV, Wira CR 3rd, Schindler JL. Missed ischemic stroke diagnosis in the emergency department by emergency medicine and neurology services. Stroke 2016;47:668-73.
12. Paul NL, Simoni M, Rothwell PM. Oxford Vascular Study. Transient isolated brainstem symptoms preceding posterior circulation stroke: a population-based study. Lancet Neurol 2013;12:65-71.
13. Wintermark M, Fischbein NJ, Smith WS, Ko NU, Quist M, Dillon WP. Accuracy of dynamic perfusion CT with deconvolution in detecting acute hemispheric stroke. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005;26:104-12.
14. Ostman C, Garcia-Esperon C, Lillicrap T, et al. Multimodal computed tomography increases the detection of posterior fossa strokes compared to brain non-contrast computed tomography. Front Neurol 2020;11:588064.
15. van der Hoeven EJ, Dankbaar JW, Algra A, et al. Additional diagnostic value of computed tomography perfusion for detection of acute ischemic stroke in the posterior circulation. Stroke 2015;46:1113-5.
16. Becks MJ, Manniesing R, Vister J, et al. Brain CT perfusion improves intracranial vessel occlusion detection on CT angiography. J Neuroradiol 2019;46:124-9.
17. Lin L, Bivard A, Krishnamurthy V, Levi CR, Parsons MW. Whole-brain CT perfusion to quantify acute ischemic penumbra and core. Radiology 2016;279:876-87.
18. Demeestere J, Wouters A, Christensen S, Lemmens R, Lansberg MG. Review of perfusion imaging in acute ischemic stroke: from time to tissue. Stroke 2020;51:1017-24.
19. Christensen S, Lansberg MG. CT perfusion in acute stroke: practical guidance for implementation in clinical practice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2019;39:1664-8.
20. Bivard A, Levi C, Spratt N, Parsons M. Perfusion CT in acute stroke: a comprehensive analysis of infarct and penumbra. Radiology 2013;267:543-50.
21. Kudo K, Sasaki M, Yamada K, et al. Differences in CT perfusion maps generated by different commercial software: quantitative analysis by using identical source data of acute stroke patients. Radiology 2010;254:200-9.
22. Chen C, Bivard A, Lin L, Levi CR, Spratt NJ, Parsons MW. Thresholds for infarction vary between gray matter and white matter in acute ischemic stroke: a CT perfusion study. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2019;39:536-46.
23. Wintermark M, Maeder P, Thiran JP, Schnyder P, Meuli R. Quantitative assessment of regional cerebral blood flows by perfusion CT studies at low injection rates: a critical review of the underlying theoretical models. Eur Radiol 2001;11:1220-30.
24. Garcia-Esperon C, Spratt NJ, Gangadharan S, et al. Computed tomography perfusion identifies patients with stroke with impaired cardiac function. Stroke 2020;51:498-503.
25. Schumann P, Touzani O, Young AR, Morello R, Baron JC, MacKenzie ET. Evaluation of the ratio of cerebral blood flow to cerebral blood volume as an index of local cerebral perfusion pressure. Brain 1998;121:1369-79.
26. Vagal A, Wintermark M, Nael K, et al. Automated CT perfusion imaging for acute ischemic stroke: Pearls and pitfalls for real-world use. Neurology 2019;93:888-98.
27. Wouters A, Christensen S, Straka M, et al. A comparison of relative time to peak and tmax for mismatch-based patient selection. Front Neurol 2017;8:539.
28. Reichenbach JR, Röther J, Jonetz-Mentzel L, et al. Acute stroke evaluated by time-to-peak mapping during initial and early follow-up perfusion CT studies. Am J Neuroradiol 1999;20:1842-50.
29. Meagher R, Shankar JJ. CT Perfusion in acute stroke: “Black Holes” on time-to-peak image maps indicate unsalvageable brain. J Neuroimaging 2019;26:605-11.
30. Lin L, Bivard A, Kleinig T, et al. Correction for delay and dispersion results in more accurate cerebral blood flow ischemic core measurement in acute stroke. Stroke 2018;49:924-30.
31. Calamante F, Gadian DG, Connelly A. Delay and dispersion effects in dynamic susceptibility contrast MRI: simulations using singular value decomposition. Magn Reson Med 2000;44:466-73.
32. Campbell BC, Christensen S, Levi CR, et al. Comparison of computed tomography perfusion and magnetic resonance imaging perfusion-diffusion mismatch in ischemic stroke. Stroke 2012;43:2648-53.
33. Campbell BC, Parsons MW. Parsons. Imaging selection for acute stroke intervention. Int J Stroke 2018;13:554-67.
34. Yu Y, Han Q, Ding X, et al. Defining core and penumbra in ischemic stroke: a voxel- and volume-based analysis of whole brain CT perfusion. Sci Rep 2016;6:20932.
35. Thierfelder KM, Sommer WH, Baumann AB, et al. Whole-brain CT perfusion: reliability and reproducibility of volumetric perfusion deficit assessment in patients with acute ischemic stroke. Neuroradiology 2013;55:827-35.
36. Yoo AJ, Verduzco LA, Schaefer PW, Hirsch JA, Rabinov JD, González RG. MRI-based selection for intra-arterial stroke therapy: value of pretreatment diffusion-weighted imaging lesion volume in selecting patients with acute stroke who will benefit from early recanalization. Stroke 2009;40:2046-54.
37. Thomalla G, Hartmann F, Juettler E, et al. Prediction of malignant middle cerebral artery infarction by magnetic resonance imaging within 6 hours of symptom onset: a prospective multicenter observational study. Ann Neurol 2010;68:435-45.
38. Wintermark M, Flanders AE, Velthuis B, et al. Perfusion-CT assessment of infarct core and penumbra: receiver operating characteristic curve analysis in 130 patients suspected of acute hemispheric stroke. Stroke 2006;37:979-85.
39. Bivard A, Spratt N, Levi C, Parsons M. Perfusion computer tomography: imaging and clinical validation in acute ischaemic stroke. Brain 2011;134:3408-16.
40. Cereda CW, Christensen S, Campbell BCV, et al. A benchmarking tool to evaluate computer tomography perfusion infarct core predictions against a DWI standard. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2016;36:1780-9.
41. Mintorovitch J, Yang GY, Shimizu H, Kucharczyk J, Chan PH, Weinstein PR. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of acute focal cerebral ischemia: comparison of signal intensity with changes in brain water and Na+,K(+)-ATPase activity. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1994;14:332-6.
42. Boned S, Padroni M, Rubiera M, et al. Admission CT perfusion may overestimate initial infarct core: the ghost infarct core concept. J Neurointerv Surg 2017;9:66-9.
43. d'Esterre CD, Boesen ME, Ahn SH, et al. Time-dependent computed tomographic perfusion thresholds for patients with acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 2015;46:3390-7.
44. Murphy BD, Fox AJ, Lee DH, et al. Identification of penumbra and infarct in acute ischemic stroke using computed tomography perfusion-derived blood flow and blood volume measurements. Stroke 2006;37:1771-7.
45. Straka M, Albers GW, Bammer R. Real-time diffusion-perfusion mismatch analysis in acute stroke. J Magn Reson Imaging 2010;32:1024-37.
46. Kealey SM, Loving VA, Delong DM, Eastwood JD. User-defined vascular input function curves: influence on mean perfusion parameter values and signal-to-noise ratio. Radiology 2004;231:587-93.
47. der Schaaf I, Vonken EJ, Waaijer A, Velthuis B, Quist M, van Osch T. Influence of partial volume on venous output and arterial input function. Am J Neuroradiol 2006;27:46-50.
48. Campbell BC, Yassi N, Ma H, et al. Imaging selection in ischemic stroke: feasibility of automated CT-perfusion analysis. Int J Stroke 2015;10:51-4.
49. Fahmi F, Marquering HA, Borst J, et al. 3D movement correction of CT brain perfusion image data of patients with acute ischemic stroke. Neuroradiology 2014;56:445-52.
50. Tong E, Wintermark M. CTA-enhanced perfusion CT: an original method to perform ultra-low-dose CTA-enhanced perfusion CT. Neuroradiology 2014;56:955-64.
51. Diekmann S, Siebert E, Juran R, et al. Dose exposure of patients undergoing comprehensive stroke imaging by multidetector-row CT: comparison of 320-detector row and 64-detector row CT scanners. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2010;31:1003-9.
52. Heit JJ, Wintermark M. Perfusion computed tomography for the evaluation of acute ischemic stroke: strengths and pitfalls. Stroke 2016;47:1153-8.
53. Raman SP, Mahesh M, Blasko RV, Fishman EK. CT scan parameters and radiation dose: practical advice for radiologists. J Am Coll Radiol 2013;10:840-6.
54. Rogalla P, Kloeters C, Hein PA. CT technology overview: 64-slice and beyond. Radiol Clin North Am 2009;47:1-11.
55. Campbell BC, Weir L, Desmond PM, et al. CT perfusion improves diagnostic accuracy and confidence in acute ischaemic stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013;84:613-8.
56. Bollwein C, Plate A, Sommer WH, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of whole-brain CT perfusion in the detection of acute infratentorial infarctions. Neuroradiology 2016;58:1077-85.
57. Lee IH, You JH, Lee JY, et al. Accuracy of the detection of infratentorial stroke lesions using perfusion CT: an experimenter-blinded study. Neuroradiology 2010;52:1095-100.
58. Ogasawara K, Sasaki M, Tomitsuka N, Kubo Y, Inoue T, Ogawa A. Early revascularization in a patient with perfusion computed tomography/diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging mismatch secondary to acute vertebral artery occlusion. Case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2005;45:306-10.
59. Bill O, Inácio NM, Lambrou D, et al. Focal hypoperfusion in acute ischemic stroke perfusion CT: clinical and radiologic predictors and accuracy for infarct prediction. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2019;40:483-9.
60. Page M, Nandurkar D, Crossett MP, et al. Comparison of 4 cm Z-axis and 16 cm Z-axis multidetector CT perfusion. Eur Radiol 2010;20:1508-14.
61. Pallesen LP, Gerber J, Dzialowski I, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic impact of pc-ASPECTS applied to perfusion CT in the Basilar Artery International Cooperation Study. J Neuroimaging 2015;25:384-9.
62. Wintermark M, Smith WS, Ko NU, Quist M, Schnyder P, Dillon WP. Dynamic perfusion CT: optimizing the temporal resolution and contrast volume for calculation of perfusion CT parameters in stroke patients. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004;25:720-9.
63. Youn SW, Kim JH, Weon YC, Kim SH, Han MK, Bae HJ. Perfusion CT of the brain using 40-mm-wide detector and toggling table technique for initial imaging of acute stroke. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008;191:W120-6.
64. Fabritius MP, Reidler P, Froelich MF, et al. Incremental value of computed tomography perfusion for final infarct prediction in acute ischemic cerebellar stroke. J Am Heart Assoc 2019;8:e013069.
65. Fabritius MP, Thierfelder KM, Meinel FG, et al. Early imaging prediction of malignant cerebellar edema development in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 2017;48:2597-600.
66. Muir KW, Buchan A, von Kummer R, Rother J, Baron JC. Imaging of acute stroke. Lancet Neurol 2006;5:755-68.
67. Kattah JC, Talkad AV, Wang DZ, Hsieh YH, Newman-Toker DE. HINTS to diagnose stroke in the acute vestibular syndrome: three-step bedside oculomotor examination more sensitive than early MRI diffusion-weighted imaging. Stroke 2009;40:3504-10.
68. Oppenheim C, Stanescu R, Dormont D, et al. False-negative diffusion-weighted MR findings in acute ischemic stroke. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2000;21:1434-40.
69. Chalela JA, Kidwell CS, Nentwich LM, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography in emergency assessment of patients with suspected acute stroke: a prospective comparison. Lancet 2007;369:293-8.
70. Choi JH, Oh EH, Park MG, et al. Early MRI-negative posterior circulation stroke presenting as acute dizziness. J Neurol 2018;265:2993-3000.
71. Schonewille W, Wijman C, Michel P. BASICS investigators. Treatment and clinical outcome in patients with basilar artery occlusion. Stroke 2006;37:2206-7.
72. Schonewille WJ, Wijman CA, Michel P, et al. Treatment and outcomes of acute basilar artery occlusion in the Basilar Artery International Cooperation Study (BASICS): a prospective registry study. Lancet Neurol 2009;8:724-30.
73. Ravindren J, Aguilar Pérez M, Hellstern V, Bhogal P, Bäzner H, Henkes H. Predictors of outcome after endovascular thrombectomy in acute basilar artery occlusion and the 6hr time window to recanalization. Front Neurol 2019;10:923.
74. Puetz V, Khomenko A, Hill MD, et al. Basilar Artery International Cooperation Study (BASICS) Group. Extent of hypoattenuation on CT angiography source images in basilar artery occlusion: prognostic value in the Basilar Artery International Cooperation Study. Stroke 2011;42:3454-9.
75. Alemseged F, Shah DG, Bivard A, et al. Cerebral blood volume lesion extent predicts functional outcome in patients with vertebral and basilar artery occlusion. Int J Stroke 2019;14:540-7.
76. Biesbroek JM, Niesten JM, Dankbaar JW, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of CT perfusion imaging for detecting acute ischemic stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cerebrovasc Dis 2013;35:493-501.